2. The decline of the Yuan Dynasty
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| Mongol Warrior |
After Kublai's death in 1294, the dynasty decayed rapidly; so rapidly, in fact, that it ruled all of China for less time than it took to conquer it. Although every Yuan emperor wore a helmet when he posed for a portrait, those who came after Kublai were no warrior-kings--most of them never even saw a battlefield--and they let the maintenance of the country go neglected while they struggled between themselves for power. Between 1294 and 1333 ten emperors rose and fell; after them came a boy of 13, Toghon Temur, who ruled as long as Kublai Khan, though not as effectively.
Inflation and high taxes alienated the peasants; the discontented scholars continued to make trouble whenever they saw an opportunity. Strange rumours began to circulate concerning the Mongols' intentions: they would not only ban iron weapons but iron tools; every unmarried boy and girl would be seized for government service; most frightening was a proposal to kill everyone named Zhao, Zhang, Li, Liu, or Wang. Famines, epidemics like the notorious bubonic plague, severe flooding of the Yellow River, and bad land management caused the population to drop from 100 million in the thirteenth century to 60 million by 1393.
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| The Mongol Empire during the reign of Kublai Khan (r. 1260 - 1294 CE). source |
The White Lotus Society
The White Lotus Society was a religious and spiritual movement that originated in China during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) and flourished in the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 CE).
In the 1330s, a number of secret religious fraternities became openly political, the most famous of these was The White Lotus Society which believed that the expulsion of the Mongols would bring about a perfect Buddhist nation. Its members met at night in secret, swore blood brotherhood, took on ritual names, and recruited an army of troops wearing red turbans. The society's core belief was in the imminent arrival of a saviour who would establish a utopian society of perfect harmony, where there would be no poverty or suffering.
When the Yellow River floods severely damaged the Grand Canal, 150,000 labourers were sent to clean up the mess. This played right into the hands of the rebels. Tradition holds that the White Lotus spread a rumour that the end of the evil empire would come shortly after the appearance of a one-eyed giant and then they buried a huge one-eyed statue where the labourers would be sure to uncover it. By 1351 most of the Huai and Yangtze valleys were in revolt.
And the Red Turbans were not alone; a pirate named Fang Guozhen made the coast unsafe, while a salt smuggler named Zhang Shicheng proclaimed himself emperor and shut himself up in the city of Gaoyu, blocking the Grand Canal.
The society's origins are shrouded in myth and legend, with some accounts suggesting that it was founded by a Taoist priest named Wang Chongyang, while others claim that it was an offshoot of the Pure Land Buddhist sect. Nonetheless, the society's name is said to derive from the white lotus flower, which represents purity and enlightenment in both Taoism and Buddhism.
The society's followers consisted primarily of peasants and other lower-class citizens who were dissatisfied with the oppressive rule of the ruling class and the corruption of the imperial court. They often expressed their discontent through secret meetings and religious ceremonies, where they prayed for the arrival of the saviour who would usher in a new era of peace and prosperity.
The White Lotus Society was known for its secretive and subversive activities, which often brought them into conflict with the ruling authorities. The society's leaders were often arrested and persecuted, and many members were forced to go into hiding or flee to other regions.
During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE), the White Lotus Society underwent a transformation, becoming more militant and actively rebelling against the ruling class. They were involved in several uprisings and rebellions, most notably the Red Turban Rebellion, which was led by the White Lotus Society's founder, Han Shantong.
Despite their initial focus on spiritual matters, the White Lotus Society's role in Chinese history is primarily associated with their rebellious activities. Nonetheless, the society's core beliefs continued to influence other religious and spiritual movements in China, such as the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, which was founded in the 19th century by Hong Xiuquan, who was inspired by the White Lotus Society's teachings
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